Methods of growing heteroepitaxial single crystal or large grained semiconductor films and devices thereon

ABSTRACT

A method is disclosed for making semiconductor films from a eutectic alloy comprising a metal and a semiconductor. Through heterogeneous nucleation said film is deposited at a deposition temperature on relatively inexpensive buffered substrates, such as glass. Specifically said film is vapor deposited at a fixed temperature in said deposition temperature where said deposition temperature is above a eutectic temperature of said eutectic alloy and below a temperature at which the substrate softens. Such films could have widespread application in photovoltaic and display technologies.

The present invention is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.No. 12/903,750 filed Oct. 13, 2010, which is a continuation-in-part ofU.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/774,465 filed May 5, 2010, which isa continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/154,802 filed May28, 2008, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference in theirentirety.

REFERENCES CITED U.S. Patent Documents

-   U.S. Pat. No. 4,717,688 1/1987 Jaentsch . . . 148/171-   U.S. Pat. No. 5,326,719 7/1994 Green et al. . . . 427/74-   U.S. Pat. No. 5,544,616 8/1996 Ciszek et al. . . . 117/60-   U.S. Pat. No. 6,429,035 B2 8/2002 Nakagawa et al. . . . 438/57-   U.S. Pat. No. 6,784,139 B1 8/2004 Sankar et al. . . . 505/230

Other Publications

-   Kass et al, Liquid Phase Epitaxy of Silicon: Potentialialities and    Prospects”, Physica B, Vol 129, 161 (1985)-   Massalski et al, “Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams”, 2^(nd.) edition,    (1990), ASM International-   Findikoglu et al, “Well-oriented Silicon Thin Films with High    Carrier Mobility on Polycrystalline Substrates”, Adv. Materials, Vol    17, 1527, (2005)-   Teplin et al, “A Proposed Route to Thin Film Crystal Si Using    Biaxially Textured Foreign Template Layers” Conference paper    NREL/CP-520-38977, November 2005-   Goyal et al., “The RABiTS approach: Using Rolling-assisted Biaxially    Textured Substrates for High-performance YBCO Superconductors,” MRS    Bulletin, Vol. 29, 552, (2004)-   Nast et al, “Aluminum Induced Crystallization of Amorphous Silicon    on Glass Substrates Above and Below the Eutectic Temperature”, Appl.    Phys. Lett., Vol 73, 3214, (1998)-   Girault et al, “Liquid Phase Epitaxy of Silicon at very low    Temperatures”, J. Crystal Growth, Vol 37, 169 (1977)-   Kayes et al, “Comparison of the Device Physics Principles of Planar    and Radial p-n junction Nanorod Solar Cells”, J. Appl. Phys., Vol    97, 114302, (2005)

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is related to producing large grained to singlecrystal semiconductor films, such as silicon films, for producingarticles such as photovoltaic and other electronic devices.

FEDERAL FUNDING

None

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

It is widely known that radiation from the sun striking earth providesenough energy to supply all of mankind's needs for energy for theindefinite future. Such a source of energy can be clean andenvironmentally benign.

It is also widely known that global warming is associated with the useof fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas. It is accepted bythe scientific community that global warming can have severe adverseeffects around the planet. There are numerous efforts around the world,combined with a sense of urgency, to cut down emissions from the usageof fossil fuels. A dominant factor in favor of the continual use offossil fuels is their cost per unit of available energy. If, forexample, the cost of producing photovoltaic cells can be reduced by afactor of approximately three while maintaining efficiency ofconversion, the photovoltaic technology would become cost competitivewith fossil fuels.

A major cost component in photovoltaic cells is the cost of thesubstrate on which the semiconductor film capable of converting sunlightinto electricity is placed. The most widely used substrate is singlecrystal silicon (Si). These substrates developed for themicroelectronics industry have been modified for application inphotovoltaic technology. If a silicon film could be deposited on aninexpensive substrate, such as glass, and with comparable quality asthat found in silicon single crystals used in the microelectronicsindustry, the cost of photovoltaic technology would drop significantly.

Epitaxial growth of thin films is a very well established process. Ithas been investigated by hundreds of researchers. Epitaxial depositionprovides a very viable way of growing very good quality films. Manysingle crystal semiconductors and insulator surfaces are used to studythe epitaxial growth of metallic films; for example, the growth ofsilver on silicon, sapphire, or a mica surface. Epitaxial metallic filmshave also been grown on other metallic films, such as gold on silver. Incontrast to metals, semiconductors, such as silicon, are difficult togrow epitaxially. For example, heteroepitaxial films of silicon havebeen successfully grown only on sapphire but at temperatures that arerelatively high for the applications we disclose here, such as thegrowth of silicon on glass substrates.

In order to take advantage of highly textured large grained films forphotovoltaic technology two problems need to be solved: inexpensivegrowth of high quality films and the availability of an inexpensivesubstrate on which desirable properties can be achieved. Here, wedisclose a method for growing semiconductor films, such as silicon,satisfying the two requirements listed above and suitable forphotovoltaic technology and other electronic applications.

The thermodynamic stability and formation temperature of two or moreelements is described by a composition versus temperature diagram,called a phase diagram. In this invention we shall make use of phasediagrams. These phase diagrams are available in the scientificliterature (Massalski et al). The phase diagram provides information onthe behavior of different phases, solid or liquid as a function oftemperature and composition. For example, the liquidus in a simplebinary eutectic system, such as Au and Si, shows how the relativecomposition of the liquid and solid, it is in equilibrium with, changeswith temperature. It is therefore possible to choose an averagecomposition, different from the eutectic composition, and cool themixture in such a way as to precipitate out one phase or the other. Ifthe composition is chosen to be richer in silicon than the eutecticcomposition then on cooling through the liquidus boundary between thesingle phase liquid and the two phase liquid plus solid, silicon willnucleate and form a solid phase. If on the other hand it is gold richrelative to the eutectic composition the first solid phase to nucleateis gold rather than silicon.

At and below the eutectic temperature the two components, in this case,Au and Si solidify from the liquid phase to phase separate into the twocomponents Au and Si. The interface energy between the two components isgenerally positive and therefore drives the two components to aggregateinto distinct phases with a minimum of surface area between the tworather than a fine mixture of the two. There is, however, the energeticsof two other interfaces to consider also: one with the substrate and theother with vacuum or gas. In considering energetics it is not only thechemical interaction of the metal or Si with the substrate that isimportant but also its crystallographic orientation, for the surface orinterface energy depends upon orientation of the grains. Another concernis the difference in lattice match between the nucleating film and thesubstrate which can lead to strain induced energy that is minimized byeither inducing defects or not growing uniformly in thickness across thesubstrate surface. These factors determine if silicon is likely todeposit on the substrate (heterogeneous nucleation) or nucleate andforms small crystals in the liquid (homogeneous nucleation).

An advantage of using eutectics compositions is that the eutectictemperature is lower than the melting temperature of the constituentelements. For example, the eutectic temperatures of Au, Al, and Ag withSi are 363, 577, and 835 degrees Centigrade (° C.), respectively. Incontrast the melting temperatures of the elements are 1064, 660, and961° C., respectively. The melting temperature of silicon is 1414° C.The eutectics then offer the possibility of nucleating a silicon crystalfrom the liquid far below the temperature at which pure liquid siliconcrystallizes. By a proper choice of the substrate surface exposed to thenucleating silicon, it is possible to nucleate and grow single crystalor large grained silicon films.

We have discussed silicon eutectics using elements such as Au, Ag, andAl. However, it is possible to replace the elements by silicon basedcompounds. For example, the compound nickel silicide forms a eutecticwith Si. There are numerous other examples of silicide compounds forminga eutectic with Si (Massalski et al). An advantage of using a silicideis that frequently the electrical contact of the silicide with siliconhas very desirable properties, such as a good ohmic contact or aSchottky barrier. Some silicides are also known to have an epitaxialrelationship with silicon. In this case, by appropriately choosingeither a silicide rich or silicon rich melt either the silicon can beinduced to grow epitaxially on the silicide or the silicide on silicon.A disadvantage in this approach is the eutectic temperature, which isgenerally high.

Low temperature solutions can also be formed with some elements, Forexample, gallium (Ga) and Si have a eutectic temperature of less than30° C., very close to that of the melting point of Ga. There are otherelements, such as indium or tin that form low temperature liquidsolutions with silicon. Si can be nucleated from these solutions at verylow temperatures relative to pure silicon (Girault et al, Kass et al).These temperatures are sufficiently low that it opens up the possibilityof using organic materials as substrates on which large grained tosingle crystal films can be grown. While this is an advantage, there isalso a serious disadvantage; at these low temperatures, the silicon filmcan contain defects and hence are not very useful as a photovoltaicmaterial. However, these very low temperature deposits can be used toinitiate the nucleation of a very thin silicon film, which issubsequently thickened by using higher temperature processes to optimizeits photovoltaic properties.

The choice of a particular system (phase diagram) is not only determinedby temperature and energetics of the interfaces, but also by thesolubility of the second element in Si. It is desirable to have precisecontrol of the doping of Si in order to optimize its semiconductorproperties for photovoltaic applications. It is also important to selectthe composition of the substrate and temperature of processing such thatthere is minimal or no chemical interaction between the silicon film andthe surface of the substrate on which it is being deposited.

From the preceding description, we can extract five common points whichare relevant to this invention. First, one end of the phase diagramalways has the semiconductor we wish to nucleate and use to produce afilm, we have used silicon in the preceding examples but it could begermanium or a compound such as gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide.Second, the thermodynamically predicted concentration of the secondelement or phase in the semiconductor is minimal. If there is solubilitythen it must be a desirable dopant. For example aluminum (Al) in siliconbehaves as a p-type dopant and experience in the semiconductor industryhas shown that trace amount of Al can be desirable. Third, the liquiduscurve has the highest temperature on the semiconductor side. In otherwords, the melting point of the semiconductor is greater than theliquidus for all compositions in equilibrium with the semiconductor.Fourth, the homogeneous nucleation energy of silicon crystal from themelt is greater than that for heterogeneous nucleation on the substrate.This latter condition promotes heterogeneous nucleation. And, fifth, thetemperature for epitaxial growth is low enough to use inexpensivesubstrates such as glass but high enough to promote a good qualitysilicon film. For example, a growth temperature above approximately 550degrees Centigrade (550° C.) is desirable to make a good quality siliconfilm. The softening temperature of ordinary glasses is around 600° C.The softening temperature of borosilicate glasses is higher. However itis not high enough to use conventional deposition temperature of greaterthan 750 degrees Centigrade for silicon on insulator, such as a sapphiresubstrate.

In order to take full advantage of the invention disclosed here thesemiconductor material has to be deposited on a substrate material whichis inexpensive, and the surface of which enables heterogeneousnucleation and growth. In the following we shall discuss two specificmethods for producing substrates suitable for heterogeneous depositionof films for photovoltaic technology. Both of these methods have beendescribed in the scientific literature and we do not claim to inventthem. We include them here for completeness.

The use of rolled and textured Ni and Ni-alloy sheets has been proposedas substrate material for superconducting films and, more recently, forfilms for photovoltaic devices (Findikoglu et al). In order tofacilitate the growth of epitaxial superconducting films on suchsubstrates, there have been two approaches described in the scientificliterature: in one the sharp rolling texture produced in a rolled andannealed Ni alloy is used as a template on which various epitaxialbuffer layers are deposited followed finally by an epitaxial film of ahigh temperature cuprate superconductors (Goyal et al). In the secondapproach (Findikoglu et al), the nickel ribbon is used as a substratefor ion beam assisted deposition of a wide variety of highly texturedceramics, for example, magnesium oxide (MgO). The ion beam aligns thegrowing MgO film, which provides a template for the subsequentdeposition of the cuprate superconductor. The latter approach is notlimited to using metal tapes but can be extended to other inexpensivesubstrates such as glass (Teplin et al). It has been found that texturecan also be induced in MgO by depositing the film on a substrate that isinclined to the normal from the oncoming vapor of MgO.

One limitation of the use of glass as a substrate has been its softeningtemperature, which is generally lower than the conventional processingtemperatures required for the growth of large grained or single crystalfilms of silicon. With the method of depositing silicon films at lowtemperatures, described in this invention, the use of buffered glassbecomes an option for we can deposit highly textured and large grainedsilicon on MgO at or below the softening temperature of glass.Similarly, researchers have grown crystalline aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) oninexpensive substrates (Findikoglu et al). We shall use MgO and Al₂O₃ asillustrative examples. However, it is understood to those skilled in theart that a variety of other materials can also work. Both Findikoglu etal and Goyal et al describe other buffer layers, including conductingceramic layers, such as TiN.

OBJECTS OF THE INVENTION

It is an object of the present invention to provide single crystal orhighly textured relatively large grained good quality semiconductorfilms and, in particular silicon films, for photovoltaic technology orother semiconductor devices, such as field effect transistors used, forexample, in displays.

It is yet another object of this invention to provide single crystal orhighly textured relatively large grained good quality semiconductorfilms and, in particular silicon films, at low temperatures. Forexample, if silicon films are used, the growth temperature is between450 and 750 degrees Centigrade.

It is yet another object of this invention to provide single crystal orhighly textured relatively large grained good quality semiconductorfilms and, in particular silicon films, on inexpensive substrates, forexample, substrates such as glass on which buffer layers such as MgOand/or Al₂O₃ have been deposited.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, the forgoing andother objects can be achieved by alloying a semiconductor and, inparticular silicon, with elements or compounds that form an eutecticsystem, and increasing slowly the concentration of the semiconductor,such as silicon, through the liquidus line to reach the two phase regionin which the semiconductor, in particular silicon, nucleates out of themelt and on the surface of a substrate.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, the forgoingand other objects can be achieved by alloying a semiconductor and, inparticular silicon, with elements or compounds that form an eutecticsystem, and increasing slowly the concentration of the semiconductor,such as silicon, through the liquidus line to reach the two phase regionin which the semiconductor, in particular silicon, nucleates on thesurface of a substrate to produce a highly textured relatively largegrained or single crystalline film.

In accordance with yet another aspect of the present invention, theforgoing and other objects can be achieved by alloying a semiconductorand, in particular silicon, with elements or compounds that form aneutectic system, and increasing slowly the concentration of thesemiconductor, such as silicon, through the liquidus line to reach thetwo phase region in which the semiconductor, in particular silicon,nucleates on the surface of a substrate made of a buffered tape in whichtexture is produced by mechanical deformation and the buffer layers areepitaxial to the texture of the metal tape. The buffer layer exposed tothe melt comprises of compounds, such as Al₂O₃ or MgO.

In accordance with yet another aspect of the present invention, theforgoing and other objects can be achieved by alloying a semiconductorand, in particular silicon, with elements or compounds that form aneutectic system, and increasing slowly the concentration of thesemiconductor, such as silicon, through the liquidus line to reach thetwo phase region in which the semiconductor, in particular silicon,nucleates on the surface of a substrate made of a buffered tape, a glasssubstrate, or any other material suitable for inexpensive manufacture ofphotovoltaic cells in which strong texture is produced by ion beamassisted deposition. The final layer, which is exposed to the siliconmelt, comprises of compounds, such as Al₂O₃or MgO.

In accordance with still another aspect of the present invention, theforgoing and other objects can be achieved by using a solid phasecomposition comprising a semiconductor and, in particular silicon, withelements or compounds that form an eutectic system, and in which a thinfilm of the element or compound is deposited first followed by thesemiconductor, such as silicon, and depositing at a temperature wherethe semiconductor atoms diffuse through the element or compound toheterogeneously nucleate on the substrate and propagate thiscrystallinity to the semiconductor film remaining on top of the elementor compound.

The method of manufacture of materials suitable for photovoltaictechnologies described in this invention are much less expensive in theconversion of sunlight into electricity than those practiced in theprior art.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows the phase diagram of the eutectic system Au—Si, taken fromthe literature (Massalski et al). The melting points of the two elementsAu and Si, as well as the eutectic temperature are shown in the figure.The eutectic composition is also indicated. The liquidus line, whichdefines the boundary between the liquid gold-silicon alloy and solidsilicon and a gold-silicon liquid alloy, and on the silicon rich side ofthe phase diagram, is marked. The figure also shows the change in phasesas the composition is changed by depositing silicon on a film of goldheld at constant temperature. As the silicon is evaporated on to thegold film, the film comprises of gold solid and a liquid gold-siliconalloy which changes from the point marked by 11 towards 12. Furtherdeposition of silicon results in the film entering the liquid phaseregion between the points marked 12 and 13. As the silicon depositioncontinues beyond the point 13, the liquidus boundary, solid siliconnucleates from the liquid which is in equilibrium with a silicon-goldliquid alloy. The solid silicon is deposited on a MgO substrate, forminga highly textured and relatively large grained heterogeneously nucleatedfilm. The thickness of the solid silicon film increases till thedeposition is stopped. As it cools Si continues to deposit from the meltwhile the Au—Si liquid solution becomes richer in gold. This processcontinues till the eutectic temperature is reached, at which point theliquid solidifies and phase separates into gold and silicon solids.

We have used the phase diagram of the Au—Si eutectic. The Al—Si eutecticis very similar. Here we can heterogeneously nucleate silicon from theAl—Si melt on a single crystal sapphire substrate to form a singlecrystal heteroepitaxial silicon film.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

As described above, we have disclosed a method to produce low costsingle crystal or large grained epitaxially aligned good qualitysemiconductor films, in particular silicon, for photovoltaic technology.We have also suggested the use of tapes or glass slabs as substratematerials. The tapes provide strong texture on which buffer layerssuitable for silicon growth are present. Our method can produce siliconepitaxy at substantially lower temperatures than those commonlypracticed, hence not only minimizing interaction with the surface of thesubstrate but also enabling the use of glass substrates.

We shall be using the eutectics of silicon with gold and aluminum indescribing the details of the invention. It is, however, understood thatone skilled in the art can extend the methodology to othersemiconductors such as germanium, gallium arsenide, or the cadmiumselenide class of photovoltaic materials.

FIG. 1 shows the phase diagram of the eutectic system Au—Si. Theeutectic composition is nominally 18.6 atomic percent pct Si and therest being gold. A thin gold film is first deposited on the bufferedsubstrate. This is followed by silicon deposition. As the siliconconcentration increases the film first forms a two phase mixture of goldand liquid gold-silicon. The composition of the latter is determined bythe choice of the deposition temperature. With further increase ofsilicon, the liquid phase region, marked 12, is reached and theremaining gold is dissolved. With still further increase of the amountof silicon, the second liquidus phase boundary, marked 13, is reachedand subsequent deposition of silicon atoms results in a solid phase ofsilicon in equilibrium with the silicon-gold liquid. If the substratesurface is suitably chosen, for example MgO crystals, the solid siliconnucleates heterogeneously onto the surface. The choice of thetemperature of deposition is determined by balancing two considerations:quality in terms of defects of the epitaxial film; too low a temperatureor too rapid a growth rate of the film at that temperature can introducedefects versus too high a temperature when chemical interaction ormechanical integrity of the substrate limit the usefulness of thematerial.

We have started with vapor deposition of the metallic film and addedsilicon to it to traverse the phase diagram from point marked 11 in thefigure. However, the metallic element and silicon can be co evaporatedto reach any concentration between the points marked 12 and 13 in thefigure and subsequently silicon added to reach the desired thickness,before cooling to room temperature.

When the desired thickness of the silicon film is obtained, thesubstrate with the film is cooled to room temperature. Even though theamount of gold required to catalyze a silicon film is small, it can befurther reduced by etching the gold away, for example, by using iodineetch, available commercially. This gold can be recycled

EXAMPLES OF THE INVENTION

The following non-limiting examples are used as illustrations of thevarious aspects and features of this invention.

Example

A good high vacuum system with two electron beam guns, is used todeposit gold and silicon independently. A glass substrate coated withion beam assisted deposited MgO film is held at temperatures between 575and 600° C. These are nominal temperatures. It is understood to oneskilled in the art that lower or higher temperatures can also be useddepending upon the softening temperature of the glass substrate or thereaction kinetics of either gold or silicon with the metallic tape orits buffer layers when used as substrates. A thin gold film ofapproximately 10 nm thickness is deposited first. This is followed by asilicon film deposited at a rate of 2 nm per minute on top of the goldfilm. The ratio of the thickness of the gold and silicon films is chosensuch that the final composition ensures that a point, marked 13, in FIG.1 is reached. This point lies at the boundary between the two phaseregion of solid Si and a liquid Si—Au mixture. For example, for a 10 nmgold film followed a 100 nm silicon film satisfies this condition.Additional silicon film nucleates heterogeneously on the MgO surface toform the desired thin film. The film can now be cooled to roomtemperature, where the film now comprises of two phases: gold and arelatively large grained and highly textured film of silicon on MgO.

By relatively large grained it is understood to imply a grain sizelarger than would have been achieved if a silicon film had beendeposited under the same conditions but without Au. In the examplediscussed above the crystallographic texture is strongly [111]. Insteadof an insulating substrate such as MgO, it is possible to choose stableand electrically conducting nitrides, such as TiN.

The gold diffuses to the surface of the silicon film, driven by itslower surface energy relative to the silicon surface. The film is etchedin a solution, such as a commercially available iodine based chemical,which removes the gold from the two phases, gold and silicon, leavingbehind a silicon film.

This silicon film can now be used as the surface on which a thickersilicon film appropriately doped to form a p-n junction, suitable forapplications such as photovoltaics, can be deposited. Alternatively, thethin silicon film can be used for heteroepitaxial deposition of othersemiconductors, which might be more efficient convertors of sunlight toelectricity.

We have used two electron beam guns as an illustrative example. It isunderstood to one skilled in the art that other methods such as a singlegun with multiple hearths, chemical vapor deposition, thermal heating,or sputtering can also be used.

Example 2

A good high vacuum system with two electron beam guns is used to depositaluminum and silicon independently. A glass substrate or a Ni basedsubstrate coated with a buffer layer of Al₂O₃ is held at temperaturesbetween 600 and 615 degree ° C. These are nominal temperatures. It isunderstood to one skilled in the art that lower or higher temperaturescan also be used depending upon the softening temperature of the glasssubstrate or the reaction kinetics of either aluminum or silicon withthe metallic tape or its buffer layers when used a substrates. Theeutectic Al—Si is used instead of the Au—Si example above. A thin Alfilm 6 nm thick is deposited on the Al₂O₃ followed by a 100 nm thicksilicon deposition, and as described in example 1, above, the two phaseregion comprising of solid silicon and a liquid Si—Al mixture isreached. The deposition is stopped and the sample is slowly cooled toroom temperature. Aluminum diffuses through the silicon film, driven byits lower surface energy relative to silicon. The silicon film isheteroepitaxially aligned by the Al₂O₃ surface. The aluminum film on thesurface can be etched chemically by well known processes to leave behinda silicon film. The surface of this film can now be used for furthergrowth of epitaxial films either for photovoltaic devices or for fieldeffect transistors.

We note, as stated earlier, that silicon can be grown epitaxially onsapphire but at temperatures higher than 750° C. This is a wellestablished commercial process. However, in the absence of aluminum,silicon deposition at, say, 600° C. produces a fine grained film ratherthan a heteroepitaxial film, as described above.

Example 3

We describe in this example how different methods of deposition can becombined to take advantage of highly textured films as described inexample 1, above. The Si film produced from the deposition of example 1is etched to remove the Au and then placed back into the vacuum chamberand p⁺-Si is deposited on this film. This latter layer serves twopurposes: it provides a conducting layer for a photovoltaic device to besubsequently built on it and can be the starting point for a variety ofdifferently configured photovoltaic devices as, for example, a nanowirephotovoltaic device. Here a 2-3 nm thick gold film is deposited on thesilicon using an electron gun. This 2-3 nm thick gold film breaks upinto nanoparticles and is the starting point used by a number ofinvestigators to use chemical vapor deposition to grow nanowires and usethese nanowires for photovoltaic devices. The difference is that we showhow an inexpensive buffered glass can be used rather than a relativelyexpensive single crystal Si substrate.

A second possibility is to deposit a Au film of thickness 5 nm asislands on a MgO buffered glass substrate, using lithographic or othermeans known in the art. A heavily doped silicon (p⁺or n⁻) film is nowdeposited on the surface followed by a p- or n-type silicon usingelectron beam deposition, as described in example 1. The thickness ofthe heavily doped film is in the micron range whereas the lightly dopedfilm is of the order of 100 nm. The deposition process is now changedand chemical vapor deposition is used for subsequent deposition ofsuitably doped films of silicon, practiced in the art to grow siliconnanowire photovoltaic devices. The heavier doped silicon film serves thepurpose of a conducting layer. Using gold islands has the advantage ofcontrolling the nanowires diameter and length in order to maximize theefficiency of the photovoltaic cell (Kayes et al). Instead of using theinsulating MgO buffer layer, a conducting material such as TiN can beused.

Example 4

We describe how different methods of deposition and temperature can becombined to take advantage of films grown as described in Examples 1 and2, above to produce desirable device structures. Instead of depositingthe Al and Si films described in Example 2 above, by two electron beamheated sources in a vacuum, we deposit the Si by decomposition of silaneusing a chemical vapor deposition chamber. This is a well knownindustrial process. As in Example 2, we deposit a 6 nm thin film of Alon to a sapphire substrate held at 600° C. We then introduce silane gasinto the chamber. At these temperatures, the silane decomposes to form aSi film which reacts with the Al to produce a eutectic solution and whenthis solution is saturated with Si (the equivalent of point marked 13 inFIG. 1 for an Au—Si alloy) the Si precipitates to heterogeneouslynucleate to form an epitaxial film on the surface of the sapphiresubstrate. This film is continuous and can be doped by adding borane orphosphene gases to silane to obtain p or n type semiconductor behavior.This film can now be used as a basis to construct thin film photovoltaiccells or, alternatively, grow nanowires of Si on top of it by simplylowering the temperature of the substrate below the eutectic temperatureof Al—Si (577° C.). For example, if the temperature of deposition is500° C., Si nanowires will grow on top of the Si film. The Al particlesthat precipitate out of the Al—Si solution once the temperature of thesubstrates is below the eutectic temperature now catalytically reducethe silane gas to form nanowires, as described in the literature. Thesenanowires can be used to build electronic devices, includingphotovoltaic cells.

While the principles of the invention have been described in connectionwith specific embodiments, it should be understood clearly that thedescriptions, along with the examples, are made by way of example andare not intended to limit the scope of this invention in any manner. Forexample, a variety of suitable substrates different from the examplesgiven above can be utilized or a different variety of deposition methodsand conditions can be employed as would be understood from thisinvention by one skilled in the art upon reading this document.

1. An electromagnetic device comprising: a substrate, said substratehaving a softening temperature being below 650 degrees Centigrade; and asingle crystal or large grained semiconductor film deposited on saidsubstrate, said film being deposited from a eutectic alloy at a constanttemperature, said constant temperature being above a eutectictemperature of said eutectic alloy and below said softening temperature,wherein said constant temperature is within a silicon-growthtemperature, said silicon-growth temperature permitting growth ofdefect-free silicon film, said silicon-growth temperature being above550 degrees Centigrade.
 2. The device of claim 1, wherein the device isa starting point for differently configured devices.
 3. The device ofclaim 1, wherein the substrate includes tapes, glass, and inexpensivematerials.
 4. The device of claim 1, wherein said substrate has a bufferlayer.
 5. The device of claim 4, wherein said buffer layer is comprisedof a nitride.
 6. The device of claim 4, further comprising a gold filmdeposited on the buffer layer, wherein said gold film breaks up intonanoparticles.
 7. The device of claim 4, further comprising a gold filmdeposited on the buffer layer, wherein said gold film breaks up intonanoparticles which are used to grow nanowires.
 8. The device of claim4, further comprising islands of gold film deposited on the bufferlayer, wherein nanowires grow from said gold film.
 9. The device ofclaim 4, further comprising islands of gold film deposited on the bufferlayer, wherein said islands of gold are used to grow nanowires.
 10. Thedevice of claim 1, further comprising a crystallographically texturedtemplate disposed on the substrate.
 11. The device of claim 10, furthercomprising a thin film deposited on the template.
 12. The device ofclaim 11, further comprising a semiconductor film depositedheteroepitaxially on said thin film.
 13. An electromagnetic devicecomprising: a substrate, said substrate being non-single crystalline; acrystallographically textured template, said template disposed on thesubstrate; and a thin film, said thin film deposited on the template,wherein nanowires are grown on said thin film.